The Five Direct Drivers

The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) ranks the five direct drivers of biodiversity loss by their relative global impact. Together, they form a converging assault on the web of life.

1. Land and Sea Use Change (30% of impact)

The conversion of natural habitats for agriculture, urbanization, and infrastructure is the single greatest threat to biodiversity globally:

• Agricultural expansion has claimed 50% of Earth's ice-free terrestrial surface
• Over 80% of tropical deforestation is driven by agriculture
• 420 million hectares of forest have been converted to other land uses since 1990
• 6.7 million hectares of primary rainforest were lost in 2024 alone—a record
• 70% of remaining forest is within 1 km of an edge, degrading ecosystem function
• 87.7% of terrestrial vertebrate species are projected to lose habitat by 2050

Habitat fragmentation is particularly insidious: it doesn't just reduce total area but isolates populations, restricts movement and resource access, and creates "extinction debt"—committed extinctions that haven't yet occurred but are inevitable given current habitat loss.

2. Direct Exploitation of Organisms (23% of impact)

Overfishing, hunting, and unsustainable harvesting continue to deplete populations far faster than they can recover:

• 37.7% of fish stocks are now overfished (FAO 2024)
• 301 terrestrial mammal species are threatened by bushmeat hunting
• Hunted areas show 83% mammal decline and 58% bird decline
• Legal wildlife trade alone is valued at $23 billion annually
• Over 30% of the world's fish stocks are overexploited, endangering marine biodiversity and livelihoods

The consequences cascade through ecosystems. The removal of top predators in marine environments has been linked to overabundance of herbivorous species and subsequent coral reef degradation. The classic example: the removal of wolves from Yellowstone caused overgrazing by elk, degrading vegetation and river ecosystems—a cascade reversed only when wolves were reintroduced.

3. Climate Change (14% of impact)

Climate change is rapidly emerging as a dominant extinction driver through multiple pathways:

• Species distributions are shifting poleward at 16.9 km per decade
• At 1.5°C warming, 1.8% of species face extinction; at 4.3°C, approximately 15%
• Ocean acidity has increased 30% since pre-industrial times, threatening marine organisms that form shells and skeletons
• 84% of global coral reefs experienced bleaching-level heat stress in 2023-24
• 47% of 976 species examined have already experienced local population extinctions

Perhaps most dangerously, climate change disrupts phenological timing—the synchronization between species. When spring flowers bloom before their pollinators emerge, or when predator-prey cycles decouple, entire food webs can unravel.

4. Pollution (14% of impact)

Pollution operates through multiple pathways, from pesticides to plastics to light contamination:

• Over 500 documented oceanic dead zones worldwide, caused by nitrogen and phosphorus runoff
• Neonicotinoid pesticides represent 25%+ of the global pesticide market, devastating pollinator populations
• 80% of IUCN Key Biodiversity Areas are affected by light pollution
• The Gulf of Mexico dead zone reaches approximately 8,000 square miles seasonally
• Millions of marine animals suffer from plastic ingestion or entanglement annually

The accumulation of heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants has long-term detrimental effects on species survival and reproduction, compounding across generations and through food chains.

5. Invasive Alien Species (11% of impact)

The IPBES Invasive Alien Species Assessment (2023) documents this accelerating threat:

• 37,000+ alien species have been introduced globally
• 3,500+ are documented as harmful
• 60% of global extinctions involve invasive species
• 90% of island extinctions involve invasive species
• Annual economic cost: $423 billion, quadrupling every decade

Invasive species outcompete native species for resources, prey on them, or introduce novel diseases. The rate of new introductions shows no sign of saturation—it continues to accelerate with global trade and travel.

Systemic Drivers: The Economics Behind Collapse

Behind the five direct drivers are systemic economic forces that make ecological destruction profitable:

Harmful Subsidies and Financial Flows

The Dasgupta Review (2021), commissioned by the UK Treasury, concluded that our economies are embedded within nature, not external to it—and that we have systematically failed to account for nature's value. The numbers are stark:

• $7.3 trillion annually flows to activities harmful to nature (2023)
• Only $220 billion is invested in nature-based solutions—a 30:1 ratio against nature
• Agricultural subsidies total approximately $700 billion annually, much of it incentivizing monoculture and land conversion
• Fossil fuel subsidies reach $7 trillion (7.1% of global GDP), driving climate change that destroys habitats
• Fisheries subsidies driving overcapacity: $22–35 billion annually

Consumption and the Biodiversity Footprint

It would take the resources of 1.6 Earths to sustain the world's current levels of consumption. High-income nations effectively externalize their biodiversity footprint to biodiversity-rich but economically poor regions—importing commodities whose production drives deforestation and habitat loss elsewhere.

Wildlife Disease and Emerging Pathogens

Biodiversity loss also increases pandemic risk. As habitats degrade, people and wildlife come into closer contact, facilitating the transfer of novel diseases between species. The amphibian fungal panzootic (chytrid fungus) has caused catastrophic and ongoing loss of amphibian biodiversity across continents, and emerging zoonotic disease hotspots correlate with areas of highest habitat disruption.

The Insect Apocalypse

Insects underpin terrestrial food webs, pollinate crops, and recycle nutrients. Their decline is particularly alarming:

• Over 75% decline in flying insect biomass in protected areas over 27 years (Germany study)
• Described as "death by a thousand cuts"—pesticides, habitat loss, light pollution, and climate change converging
• Terrestrial insect abundances are declining broadly, while some freshwater insect populations increase—likely due to improved water quality in certain regions

The loss of insect pollinators alone could collapse 35% of global food crop production.

What Regenerative Commons Can Do

OASA's model directly addresses the root causes of biodiversity loss:

• Land use change → Perpetual commons: By removing land from commodity markets through perpetual commons and treating land as commons, not commodities, OASA eliminates the profit motive for habitat conversion.
• Exploitation → Regenerative principles: OASA's seven principles of regeneration mandate stewardship over extraction.
• Climate change → Carbon sequestration: Rewilding 50% of project land creates significant carbon sinks while supporting biodiversity.
• Pollution → Regenerative agriculture: Agroforestry and soil, water, and air regeneration replace chemical-intensive farming with practices that build ecosystem health.
• Monitoring → eDNA and digital twins: Environmental DNA monitoring provides scientific accountability for biodiversity outcomes.

Related Terms

• Biodiversity — The variety of all life on Earth and its current crisis
• Sixth Mass Extinction — The current extinction event driven by human activity
• Ecosystem Collapse and Tipping Points — Critical thresholds and cascading risks
• Rewilding — Restoring natural processes to reverse habitat loss
• Regenerative Principles — Stewardship practices that address root causes
• Climate Resilient Community — Communities designed to adapt to environmental change
• Regenerative Finance — Aligning capital with ecological regeneration